Achaemenid Empire

Lore & Background

The Achaemenid Empire was created by nomadic Persians, an Iranic people who arrived in what is today Iran c. 1000 BC and settled a region including north-western Iran, the Zagros Mountains and Persis alongside the native Elamites. The Achaemenids were initially rulers of the Elamite city of Anshan near the modern city of Marvdasht. Cyrus the Great revolted against the Median Empire in 553 BC, and in 550 BC succeeded in defeating the Medes, capturing Astyages and taking the Median capital city of Ecbatana. He then conquered Lydia in 546 BC and the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 539 BC, taking Babylon. Cyrus is credited with freeing the Jews from the Babylonian captivity, permitting their return to Judah, and authorizing the rebuilding of Jerusalem, including the Second Temple. The empire's attempts to expand into Greece proved extremely difficult over the course of decades of wars and multiple kings, ultimately resulting in its defeat in the Greek mainland. In 330 BC, amidst a Greek military campaign that began in 336 BC, the Achaemenid Empire was conquered in its entirety by Alexander the Great, who annexed it to his Macedonian Empire.

Reader's Guide

The Achaemenid Empire's significance lies in its establishment of a vast, multicultural state with a centralized bureaucracy and a policy of religious tolerance, especially under Cyrus. It developed complex infrastructure like the Royal Road and an organized postal system, used official languages (Persian and Aramaic), and maintained a large professional army and navy. Many of these systems were adopted and expanded upon by later empires in the Greco-Roman world and beyond. The empire's attempts to expand into Greece proved extremely difficult and ultimately resulted in defeat on the Greek mainland. In 330 BC, Alexander the Great conquered the entire empire, and after his death in 323 BC, the majority of the former Achaemenid Empire's territories came under the rule of the Seleucid Empire and the Ptolemaic Kingdom. Almost a century later, Iranian elites in the central plateau successfully reclaimed power from the Seleucids and established the Parthian Empire, which existed for nearly half a millennium before being succeeded by the Iranian Sasanian Empire.

Did You Know?

• The Persian term for their empire was Xšāça, literally meaning 'The Kingdom'.
• Cyrus the Great is credited with freeing the Jews from the Babylonian captivity and authorizing the rebuilding of Jerusalem, including the Second Temple.
• The Achaemenid Empire was conquered in its entirety by Alexander the Great in 330 BC, amidst a Greek military campaign that began in 336 BC.
• The empire's name comes from Achaemenes, a minor seventh-century ruler of Anshan and a vassal of Assyria.
• The Royal Road and an organized postal system were among the empire's complex infrastructure projects.

The Rise of Cyrus and the Birth of an Empire

By the 7th century BC, the region of Persis, located in the southwestern part of the Iranian plateau, had been settled by Persian people. The Persians were originally nomadic pastoralists in the western Iranian Plateau. From Persis, Cyrus rose and revolted against the Median Empire in 553 BC, and in 550 BC succeeded in defeating the Medes, capturing Astyages and taking the Median capital city of Ecbatana. Once in control of Ecbatana, Cyrus styled himself as the successor to Astyages and assumed control of the entire empire. By inheriting Astyages' empire, he also inherited the territorial conflicts the Medes had with both Lydia and the Neo-Babylonian Empire. King Croesus of Lydia sought to take advantage of the new international situation by advancing into what had previously been Median territory in Asia Minor. Cyrus led a counterattack which not only fought off Croesus' armies, but also led to the capture of Sardis and the fall of the Lydian Kingdom in 546 BC. Cyrus placed Pactyes in charge of collecting tribute in Lydia and left, but once Cyrus had left Pactyes instigated a rebellion. Cyrus sent the Median general Mazares to deal with the rebellion, and Pactyes was captured. Mazares, and after his death Harpagus, set about reducing all the cities which had taken part in the rebellion. The subjugation of Lydia took about four years in total. In October 539 BC, Cyrus won a battle against the Babylonians at Opis, then took Sippar without a fight before finally capturing the city of Babylon on 12 October, where the Babylonian king Nabonidus was taken prisoner. Upon taking control of the city, Cyrus depicted himself in propaganda as restoring the divine order which had been disrupted by Nabonidus, who had promoted the cult of Sin rather than Marduk, and he also portrayed himself as restoring the heritage of the Neo-Assyrian Empire by comparing himself to the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal. Cyrus is credited with freeing the Jews from the Babylonian captivity, permitting their return to Judah, and authorizing the rebuilding of Jerusalem, including the Second Temple.

Vast Reach and Administrative Innovation

At its peak, the Achaemenid Empire's territorial extent was roughly 5.5 million square kilometres (2.1 million square miles), making it the largest empire of its time. Based on the Iranian plateau, it stretched from the Balkans and Cyrenaica in the west to the Indus Valley in the east, including Anatolia, Cyprus, Mesopotamia, the Levant, the South Caucasus, parts of Eastern Arabia, and large parts of Central Asia. The empire has been recognized for its centralized bureaucracy and administration; its multicultural policy and religious tolerance, especially under Cyrus; its complex infrastructure projects, such as the Royal Road and an organized postal system; the use of official languages (Persian and Aramaic) across its territories; and the development of a civil service and a large, professional army and navy. Many of these systems were adopted and expanded upon by later empires in the Greco-Roman world and beyond.

The Greek Wars and the Empire's End

The Achaemenid Empire's attempts to expand into Greece proved extremely difficult over the course of decades of wars and multiple kings, ultimately resulting in its defeat in the Greek mainland. In 330 BC, amidst a Greek military campaign that began in 336 BC, the Achaemenid Empire was conquered in its entirety by Alexander the Great, who annexed it to his Macedonian Empire. Upon Alexander's death, which sparked the beginning of the Hellenistic period in 323 BC, the majority of the former Achaemenid Empire's territories came under the rule of the Seleucid Empire and the Ptolemaic Kingdom. Almost a century later, Iranian elites in the central plateau successfully reclaimed power from the Seleucids and established the Parthian Empire, which existed for nearly half a millennium before being succeeded by the Iranian Sasanian Empire.

Dynastic Roots and Enduring Legacy

The Achaemenid Empire is named after Achaemenes, who is credited as the progenitor of the Achaemenid dynasty. The term Achaemenid means 'of the family of the Achaemenis/Achaemenes' (Old Persian: Haxāmaniš; a bahuvrihi compound translating to 'having a friend's mind'). Achaemenes was himself a minor seventh-century ruler of the Anshan in southwestern Iran, and a vassal of Assyria. Around 850 BC the original nomadic people who began the empire called themselves the Parsa and their constantly shifting territory Parsua, for the most part localized around Persis. The name 'Persia' is a Greek and Latin pronunciation of the native word referring to the country of the people originating from Persis (Old Persian: Pārsa). The Persian term Xšāça, literally meaning 'The Kingdom', was used to refer to the Empire formed by their multinational state. The Achaemenids were initially rulers of the Elamite city of Anshan near the modern city of Marvdasht; the title 'King of Anshan' was an adaptation of the earlier Elamite title 'King of Susa and Anshan'. According to the Cyrus Cylinder, the kings of Anshan were Teispes, Cyrus I, Cambyses I and Cyrus II, also known as Cyrus the Great, who founded the empire. The later Behistun Inscription, written by Darius the Great, claims that Teispes was the son of Achaemenes and that Darius is also descended from Teispes through a different line, but no earlier texts mention Achaemenes.